Mesmerism, a term derived from the name of its founder Franz Anton Mesmer, is a historical practice and theory of healing that significantly influenced the development of ideas about consciousness and psychotherapy. This phenomenon, which emerged in the 18th century, laid the groundwork for the modern understanding of hypnosis and altered states of consciousness, despite its controversial nature and subsequent scientific refutation.
Overview of Franz Anton Mesmer and the Origin of “Animal Magnetism”
Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815) was an Austrian physician who developed the theory of “animal magnetism,” later known as mesmerism.[1, 2, 3, 4] He postulated the existence of an invisible natural force, which he called “Lebensmagnetismus” (life magnetism), that he claimed was transmitted between all living and non-living objects.[2, 3, 5, 6] Initially, Mesmer named this force “animal gravitation” in his 1766 doctoral dissertation, but later renamed it “animal magnetism.”[7, 8] Over time, the term “mesmerism” became virtually synonymous with hypnosis or artificial somnambulism.[1, 2]
This shift in terminology from “animal magnetism” to “hypnotism” reflects a profound change in the understanding of the phenomenon. The initial definition of mesmerism was clearly linked to a hypothetical physical “fluid” and the idea of influencing the nervous system through its “emanation.”[1] However, as the scientific community began to investigate these phenomena, the emphasis shifted to psychological aspects, such as suggestion and altered states of consciousness. The fact that the word “mesmerize” is still used in everyday language to describe enchantment or being hypnotized [9] demonstrates a cultural impact that outlived the scientific refutation of Mesmer’s original theory. This shows how language can capture and preserve historical stages of scientific and societal understanding, even when the scientific paradigm undergoes fundamental changes.
Mesmer’s Initial Theories and His Dissertation on Planetary Influence
In 1766, Mesmer published his doctoral dissertation with the Latin title “De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum” (On the Influence of the Planets on the Human Body), in which he discussed the influence of the Moon and planets on the human body and diseases.[2, 3, 7, 10] His theory was largely based on Isaac Newton’s theory of tides, where Mesmer assumed the existence of certain “tides” in the human body that could be explained by the movements of the Sun and Moon.[2, 3, 10] It should be noted that there are claims that Mesmer largely plagiarized his dissertation from other works, particularly from Richard Mead’s “De imperio solis ac lunae in corpora humana et morbius inde oriundis” (1704), a prominent English physician and friend of Newton.[2]
Mesmer, starting with Newtonian physics to explain planetary influence, sought scientific justification for his ideas. However, his concept of an “invisible natural force” or “universal fluid” and the idea of “life as a free flow” strongly resonated with the Romantic philosophy of the late 18th century. This philosophy opposed the mechanistic worldview, which viewed the universe as a vast machine, and instead emphasized the “essence of things,” “dynamics,” and “internal forces.”[11] This indicates that Mesmer was not merely a “charlatan,” as he was often called, but rather a figure who tried to integrate new scientific ideas with the prevailing philosophical and medical concepts of the time. His work reflects a transitional period in the history of science and medicine, when a clear distinction between the physical, metaphysical, and psychological had not yet been established, and the search for “universal” explanations was common.
Theoretical Foundations and Practices of Mesmerism
Mesmerism was based on a unique theory and a complex set of practical methods developed by Franz Anton Mesmer to restore patients’ health. These practices evolved from individual to collective sessions, adapting to the growing demand for his treatments.
The Concept of “Animal Magnetism” as a Universal Life Force and Cause of Disease
Mesmer understood health as the free flow of the life process through thousands of channels in the human body.[2, 3, 12] According to his theory, diseases were caused by obstructions to this flow.[2, 3, 12] Overcoming these obstructions and restoring free flow was supposed to induce “crises” which were believed to restore health.[2, 3] Mesmer believed that he himself could transmit “animal magnetism,” which accumulated in his work, to patients, acting as a “conductor” of this universal fluid.[2, 3, 7]
Detailed Description of Individual Treatment Methods (Magnetic Passes, Physical Contact)
For individual sessions, Mesmer employed an intensive personal approach. He sat opposite the patient, touching knees, pressing the patient’s thumbs in his hands, and gazing fixedly into their eyes.[2, 3] He then performed so-called “passes,” moving his hands from the patient’s shoulders down their arms.[2, 3] After this, he pressed his fingers to the hypochondriac region (the area below the diaphragm), sometimes holding his hands there for hours.[2, 3] Many patients reported strange sensations or had convulsions, which Mesmer considered “crises” and which were supposed to lead to healing.[2, 3] These individual sessions often concluded with him playing the glass harmonica, adding a sensory element to the therapy.[3]
Initially, Mesmer experimented with using physical magnets for treatment.[2, 3] However, he quickly concluded that the magnets themselves were not the source of healing, but rather he himself was the “conductor” of accumulated “animal magnetism.”[2, 3, 7, 8] This shift from an external object (the magnet) to the internal, personal “power” of the mesmerist is a key moment in the development of his technique. It shifted the focus from a physical instrument to personal interaction and, ultimately, to the subjective experience of the patient, which became an important step towards understanding the role of suggestion and psychological factors. Such a shift shows how Mesmer, perhaps unconsciously, moved away from purely mechanistic explanations towards more subjective and interactive methods, which had significance for the further development of psychology.
Description of Collective Sessions and the Use of the “Baquet”
Due to the large number of patients, around 1780, Mesmer introduced a method of collective treatment known as the “baquet.”[2, 3] The “baquet” was a large wooden tub, about one and a half feet high, placed in the middle of a room, large enough for up to twenty people to sit around it.[2, 3] The lid of the baquet had holes into which iron rods were inserted, bent at right angles outwards, of various heights, so they could be applied to different parts of the patients’ bodies.[2, 3] Additionally, a rope connected the baquet to one patient, and from that patient it was passed to others, uniting the entire group, which created the impression of transmitting a “magnetic fluid.”[3]
The Mesmerist’s Role in Provoking “Crises” for Healing
The role of the mesmerist, particularly Mesmer himself, was crucial in both individual and group settings. He believed he could transmit the fluid with certain hand movements or eye gazes, even without touching the person, and these actions could induce or relieve convulsions.[2, 3] His goal was to “aid or provoke the efforts of Nature” in restoring the free flow of vital force.[2, 3] For example, treating an insane person involved inducing a fit of madness, with magnetism supposedly accelerating such crises without danger.[2, 3]
The concept of “crisis” as a necessary stage of healing is paradoxical from a modern perspective, where treatment usually aims to reduce symptoms. However, in the context of the 18th century, where medicine often used aggressive methods such as bloodletting, purgatives, and emetics [12] to “cleanse” the body of “obstructions” (e.g., according to humoral theory) [12], Mesmer’s “crisis” could be perceived as an intense, accelerated process of “removing obstructions.” This shows how Mesmer, although departing from orthodox methods, still operated within a paradigm where dramatic physical reactions were considered a sign of treatment effectiveness. This also explains why patients might perceive these convulsions as a positive sign, as they aligned with contemporary notions of “cleansing” the body and restoring balance.
Public Perception and Popularity of Mesmerism
Despite scientific skepticism, mesmerism gained extraordinary popularity in the 18th and 19th centuries, demonstrating its ability to meet societal needs that contemporary orthodox medicine could not fully satisfy.
Analysis of the Reasons for the Widespread Adoption and Demand for Mesmerism in the 18th-19th Centuries
Mesmerism became widespread between 1780 and 1850, retaining some influence until the late 19th century.[2] Despite the skepticism of the medical and scientific community, the public generally welcomed Mesmer, and the demand for his treatments was immense.[7, 13, 14] He attracted people from all walks of life: from royalty and the elite to peasants and laborers.[7, 12, 14] His popularity was explained by the fact that he was “exciting, mysterious, and wonderfully meritocratic”—anyone could mesmerize, without requiring expensive training or membership in exclusive professional organizations.[14] Mesmer also treated poor patients pro bono, indicating his accessibility and, perhaps, sincere intentions.[12]
The Use of Mesmerism in Various Social Contexts, Including Labor Control
Mesmerism was used not only as a healing practice but also in various social contexts. It was applied as a cheap form of medicine for the poor.[14] Interestingly, Charles Poyen, who introduced mesmerism to the United States, promoted it as a method for managing and disciplining labor in New England cotton mills and Guadeloupe sugar plantations.[15] Slaves and “factory girls” were considered “more primitive, more controllable, more exploitable” and thus more susceptible to mesmerism, reflecting the social prejudices of the time.[15] This indicates that the perception of “susceptibility” to mesmerism was deeply rooted in the social hierarchies and prejudices of the time. Mesmerism, therefore, not only reflected existing social structures but was also used to reinforce them, which is an important aspect of its sociocultural impact. In addition, mesmerism was linked to the radical political programs of some socialist groups, highlighting its potential as a tool for social change.[14]
Mesmerism as a Form of Entertainment and Alternative Medicine
Mesmerism flourished as a pseudoscience and entertainment until the 1850s, before being gradually absorbed by spiritualism.[15] Mesmeric showmen toured the country, giving demonstrations, which underscores its theatrical aspect.[14] It was used to investigate paranormal phenomena, such as clairvoyance and intuition, which developed in a state of “somnambulism.”[6, 10, 14]
Mesmerism was part of a broader landscape of alternative medical practices of the 18th century. At that time, the boundaries between “orthodox” medicine and “quackery” were quite blurred. Orthodox medicine often relied on humoral theory, using methods such as bloodletting, purgatives, and emetics.[12] At the same time, there was a huge market for “quack” remedies—secret remedies with exaggerated claims of efficacy, often unproven, useless, and sometimes dangerous.[16, 17] These mass-marketed remedies often contained the same ingredients as “regular” doctors’ prescriptions, blurring the line between them.[16] Essentially, many contemporary “cures,” both orthodox and alternative, largely depended on the body’s natural healing ability or the placebo effect.[17] Mesmerism, despite its scientific discredit, functioned in this environment where the public sought relief from common ailments, and medical science was still in its early stages of development.[16]
Scientific Investigation and Discreditation
Despite its popularity among the public, mesmerism faced strong opposition from the scientific and medical community, which ultimately led to its official discreditation.
Reaction of the Medical and Scientific Community to Mesmerism
Mesmerism, which Mesmer initially presented as a medical theory linking the movements of stars to human health in his 1766 doctoral dissertation [10], quickly evolved into a method of using “human magnetism” for healing.[10] However, his ideas and methods caused significant concern and skepticism among the medical community.[13, 14] In 1780, Mesmer approached the Paris Faculty of Medicine with a request to supervise a trial of the results of his treatment, but he insisted that the trial should only concern the results, not the details of his method, which he refused to disclose.[13, 18] The faculty rejected this proposal, condemning one of its members, Deslon, who petitioned on Mesmer’s behalf.[13]
Activity of the French Royal Commissions of 1784 and Their Findings
The rejection by the Paris Faculty of Medicine sparked some public criticism, and Mesmer eventually appealed to Queen Marie Antoinette.[13] In response, in 1784, King Louis XVI appointed two separate and independent French Royal Commissions to investigate “animal magnetism” and mesmerism.[2, 19] These commissions included leading scientists of the time, such as chemist Antoine Lavoisier, physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, astronomer Jean-Sylvain Bailly, and American ambassador Benjamin Franklin.[2]
The commissions did not investigate Mesmer directly, but observed the practice of his student Deslon.[2] Their experiments were aimed not at determining whether Mesmer’s treatment worked, but whether the new physical fluid he postulated existed.[2] The commissions used blind trials, blindfolding subjects to determine if mesmerism worked when the subject was unaware of its application.[2]
Based on their investigations, both commissions concluded that there was no evidence of the existence of “animal magnetism” or “magnetic fluid.”[19] All observed effects were attributed to the patients’ “imagination” or “suggestion.”[2, 19] Their findings are considered the first official observation of the placebo effect.[2] Although the commissions did not attempt to explain the physical mechanisms of influencing “imagination,” they noted that similar effects caused by non-physical means are not uncommon, citing the influence of demagogues or those who claim spiritual powers.[18] This investigation became the first example of a rigorous, controlled experiment in a medical context, which had significant implications for the development of scientific methodology.[20]
Impact of Commission Reports on Mesmer’s Reputation and Further Evolution of Practice
The commission reports severely undermined Mesmer’s reputation, and he was expelled from Paris shortly after the investigations.[3] However, his influential student, Armand-Marie-Jacques de Chastenet, Marquis de Puységur, continued to have many followers.[3] Mesmer’s discreditation did not stop the practice of “animal magnetism” but contributed to its transformation, shifting the focus from physical fluid to psychological phenomena such as suggestion and altered states of consciousness.
Legacy of Mesmerism and Its Influence on Modern Psychology
Despite scientific refutation, mesmerism left a significant mark on the history of medicine and psychology, becoming an important precursor to modern concepts and practices.
Transition from “Animal Magnetism” to “Hypnosis”: The Role of James Braid
Modern hypnosis traces its origins to Franz Anton Mesmer, but it was the Scottish surgeon James Braid who played a key role in its scientific formalization.[2, 21, 22] In 1843, Braid proposed the term “hypnotism” for the technique derived from “animal magnetism.”[2] Braid rejected Mesmer’s concept of “animal magnetism” as a universal fluid, instead emphasizing the role of focused attention and psychological factors.[22, 23, 24] He found that many phenomena of mesmerism could be reproduced simply by asking subjects to fix their gaze on an object, leading to a state he called “nervous sleep” or hypnosis.[24] Braid proved that “magnetic passes” were unnecessary and that there was no mysterious “fluid.”[24] He also discovered autohypnosis, showing that anyone could hypnotize themselves by looking at an object.[24] His work shifted the focus from Mesmer’s mystical magnetism to a more grounded understanding of altered states of consciousness.[25] Braid also noted similarities between his technique and Eastern meditative practices involving gaze fixation and focused attention.[23]
Influence of Mesmerism on the Development of Psychotherapy and the Understanding of the Unconscious
Mesmerism, despite its controversies, laid an important foundation for the development of modern hypnotherapy and therapeutic practices associated with altered states of consciousness.[9] It challenged the existing medical views of its time and opened avenues for further research into how consciousness can be manipulated for therapeutic purposes.[9]
One of Mesmer’s key followers who made significant contributions to the understanding of the unconscious was the Marquis de Puységur.[7, 26] He discovered that some individuals fell into a trance state, which he called “magnetic sleep” or “artificial somnambulism.”[7, 27] In this state, patients, although appearing asleep, remained conscious, could communicate, and respond to suggestions.[7] Puységur noted that in this state, patients were highly suggestible, perceiving any fantasy of the “magnetizer” as reality.[7] His detailed records of practice with patients, including their names, symptoms, and subsequent information, provided a unique insight into his process and became a foundational text in the history of psychodynamic thought, revealing insights into the subconscious mind.[27]
Thus, mesmerism paved the way for the scientific awareness of the subconscious mind and its functions.[4] Modern therapies, such as hypnotherapy, use these principles to access the subconscious mind for healing purposes.[9] The understanding of how altered states can be induced has spread to various fields such as neuroscience and psychology, leading to innovative treatments for conditions such as anxiety and pain.[9, 25]
Contemporary Perception and Historical Significance
Today, the word “mesmerism” commonly functions as a synonym for “hypnosis.”[2] Although Mesmer’s theory of “animal magnetism” was discredited, his work and practices laid the foundation for studying the mind-body connection and developing psychotherapeutic approaches.[8, 25] Mesmerism, in essence, became a catalyst for further scientific research in the field of altered states of consciousness and suggestion, ultimately leading to the formation of modern hypnotherapy and its integration into clinical practice.
Conclusion
The study of mesmerism and its practices reveals a complex history intersecting with medicine, science, philosophy, and society in the 18th-19th centuries. Franz Anton Mesmer, despite his initial theory of “animal magnetism” being scientifically refuted, proved to be a figure who, perhaps unconsciously, paved the way for a deeper understanding of psychological phenomena.
His pursuit of scientific justification, evident in his recourse to Newtonian physics, was combined with elements of Romantic philosophy that emphasized internal forces and the dynamics of life. This synthesis reflects a transitional period when the boundaries between the physical, metaphysical, and psychological were still blurred. Mesmer’s shift from using physical magnets to the personal transmission of “magnetic fluid” demonstrates the evolution of his technique from an external object to an internal source of power, highlighting the growing, albeit not fully conscious, role of the patient’s subjective experience and interaction with the mesmerist.
The concept of “crisis” as a necessary stage of healing, though paradoxical from a modern perspective, aligned with contemporary medical paradigms that often involved dramatic physical reactions to “cleanse” the body. This helped mesmerism gain widespread popularity among the public, who sought relief from illnesses at a time when orthodox medicine was still underdeveloped.
The popularity of mesmerism also exposed the social prejudices of the time, as its application for labor control among marginalized groups such as slaves and factory workers indicates the use of medical or pseudoscientific practices to reinforce existing social hierarchies. At the same time, mesmerism existed in a landscape where the lines between “orthodox” medicine and “quackery” were blurred, and both often relied on the placebo effect and unproven remedies.
The scientific investigation by the French Royal Commissions in 1784, which used the first controlled experiments and blind trials, ultimately discredited the theory of “animal magnetism,” attributing all effects to the patients’ “imagination.” This became the first official observation of the placebo effect, which had fundamental significance for the development of scientific methodology in medicine.
Despite Mesmer’s discreditation, his legacy continued through his students, such as the Marquis de Puységur, who discovered “artificial somnambulism” and laid the groundwork for understanding the unconscious. Subsequently, James Braid, rejecting the concept of fluid, renamed the practice “hypnotism,” focusing on the role of focused attention, thereby finally separating it from mystical explanations.
Thus, mesmerism, although rejected as a scientific theory, proved to be a catalyst for the development of modern hypnosis, psychotherapy, and the understanding of altered states of consciousness and the unconscious mind. Its history serves as a vivid example of how even erroneous scientific hypotheses can serendipitously open pathways to important discoveries in other fields, demonstrating the complex interplay between scientific pursuits, societal needs, and the evolution of human knowledge.
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